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Message:: [QUOTE="USS656, post: 871815, member: 6641"][FONT=&quot]Marking a surface for decoration has always been part of human culture back to prehistoric times.  Early engraving tools were used to decorate bones, antlers, and other stones. [/FONT]  [FONT=&quot]Figure 1: Burin from Magdalenian period (16,000 to 10,000 BC)<img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/burin_up.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> [/FONT]    By the renaissance the burin or graver (cold chisel tool used for engraving) had become a familiar tool in the hands of gold and silver smiths and other workers of non-ferrous metals.  Burins typically have a square or lozenge shape face, though several other types are used. A tint burin consists of a square face with teeth, enabling the creation of many fine, closely spaced lines. A stipple tool allows for the creation of fine dots. A flat burin consists of a rectangular face, and is used for cutting away large portions of material at a time.    Figure 2 and 3: Contemporary Burin and Burin plowing a piece of copper  <img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/Burin1.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> <img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/copperplowedbyburin.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />   [FONT=&quot]“Niello” in Italian loosely translates to “a little black line” and referred to a particular type of decorative art.  The nielo technique, which involved rubbing an alloy into the lines to give a contrasting color, goes back to late antiquity. Originally developed by the Romans it consisted of engraving metallic surfaces with fine lines and filling them with a hard dark amalgam. The piece would be smoked, rubbed with an oil [/FONT]  [FONT=&quot]rag then rolled on a damp paper.  Vasari, the early Florentine artist credits the Master Italian niello worker, Maso Finiguerra with the discovery of the process in the mid-15th century.  There is evidence of earlier use by Germans and Italians for the purpose of record.  Intaglio is derived from niello and refers to engraving, as a method of making prints. [/FONT]    One of the earliest famous artists to engrave in ferrous metal for printing was German, Albrecht Dürer.  Copperplate printing of illustrations formed the traditions later used in security printing. His father was a successful goldsmith, originally named Ajtósi, who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Hungary.  [FONT=&quot]Figure 5: Albrecht Dürer<img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/428px-Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> [/FONT]    Dürer's godfather was Anton Koberger, who left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. He quickly became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing presses and having many offices in Germany and abroad. His most famous publication was the Nuremberg Chronicle, published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. Dürer may well have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut.  [FONT=&quot]Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. The first few were relatively unambitious, but by 1496 he was able to produce the masterpiece, the Prodigal Son, which Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace (ca.1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and beautiful animals. He made [/FONT]    a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous   Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_Eva,_Durer,_1504.jpg" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_Eva,_Durer,_1504.jpg" rel="nofollow">Adam and Eve</a> (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces.<a href="http://www.cointalk.com/#_ftn1" class="internalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.cointalk.com/#_ftn1"></a> This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name.   Dürer made large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the Praying Hands (1508 Albertina, Vienna), a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece.   Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominately in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists.  However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio Raimondi perfected his new engraving style, which in turn traveled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also.  Marcantonio Raimondi, the engraver trained by Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino), first practiced by copying German woodcuts into line engravings. Marcantonio became an engraver of remarkable power and through him, the pure art of line-engraving reached its maturity. He retained much of the simplistic early Italian manner in his backgrounds. His figures are modeled boldly in curved lines, crossing each other in the darker shades, but left single in the passages from dark to light and breaking away in fine dots as they approach the light itself, which is of pure white paper. A new Italian school of engraving was born, which put aside minute details for a broad, harmonious treatment.  Figure 4:  Engraving by Marcantonio<img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/Pietro_Aretino_p.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />   [FONT=&quot]By the 17th Century privately issued Goldsmiths' notes were issued in England. These were a kind of IOU for gold and silver entrusted to the goldsmiths for safekeeping. The Stockholm Bank in Sweden issued the first European Bank notes in the strict sense of the words in 1661. [/FONT]    Copperplate printing of paper money was used in 17th century England in part due to the lack of coin in the colonies.  One of America's earliest and also best known copperplate engraver was the Boston silversmith and patriot, Paul Revere. He engraved plates for colonial paper money, bookplates, almanac illustrations, newspaper mastheads, book and magazine illustrations, prints, etc.  In 1775 Revere became a bank note engraver.  The money he manufactured was the first issued by an independent government not under British sovereignty.   The first bank note engraver of independent America he is considered the father of the industry in America.  In 1775 Revere made three lots of money for Massachusetts totaling 220,000 pounds.  The last 100,000 had an image of a man holding a sword and became known as “sword hand money.”  Other colonies quickly followed Massachusetts in issuing their own notes.  Just after the first notes were issued in Massachusetts the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia.  Their work led to the new money to be called a “Continental.” By 1779 the money had lost all of its value leading to the phrase “not worth a Continental.”  This happened primarily because of the British Army flooded the colonies with counterfeits to demoralize the rebels and their government.  Figure 6:  Paul Revere  <img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/PaulRevere.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />     By the late 18th century several colonies were printing more attractive money.  The end of the 18th century is when modern banknote printing really began in America.  In 1791 the Federally chartered Bank of the United States opened with the main office in Philadelphia. This bank was to perform many functions of a central bank.  The new economy also needed a new mint and this was also established in Philadelphia.   In 1793 Robert Scot was appointed the first engraver and held the position until his death in 1824.          [FONT=&quot]While the bank note engraving business was getting started in Philadelphia a genius was working on his ideas in Massachusetts.  Born in 1766 he became an apprentice goldsmith at the age of 13 and successfully took over the business at fifteen when his master died.  Before Jacob Perkins became involved, the industry realized the issue of using copper plates for making bank notes.  A copper plate normally only lasts for 5000 impressions.  When a plate would ware out a new plate would need to be engraved which would lead to differences between issued notes.  These differences made counterfeiting [/FONT] easier.  Perkins developed a way to engrave in soft steel and then harden the steel without damaging the fine lines. The practical number of impressions could be taken from 5,000 to 30,000 and beyond.  The other advantage gained by using steel was that much finer lines could be used.  Perkins also took a leading roll in the process to transfer an image from a steel plate to a transfer roll. The engraved plates would be hardened and then an impression (in reverse) would be transferred to a transfer roll.  The roll would be hardened and then used to transfer the image to a master plate that would consist of different images from different rolls.  Once finished the Master plate would be hardened and used for printing.  In 1799 a system was patented to produce paper currency bearing several identical intaglio printed units.  These were then referred to as stereotype checkpoints.  By 1809, it was mandatory to use this process in all State banks in Massachusetts.  He later improved the printing process using larger rolls and engraving on flat plates.  This process became known as the American System.    [FONT=&quot]Figure 7:  Jacob Perkins <img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/JacobPerkins.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Figure 8: Stereotype Checkpoint  [/FONT]<img src="http://i235.photobucket.com/albums/ee123/USS656/stereocheckpoint.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />   [FONT=&quot]In 1812, an American clockmaker Asa Spencer of Connecticut patented a clever engine turning device to ornament watches.  It created a series of eccentric circular motions to a die.  A stationary point cut an endless design of such exceptional regularity that it became recognized as an effective means to foil counterfeiters.  In 1815 Perkins purchased the rights to this machine, then greatly improved.  The method was completely adaptable to the banknote engraving process.  Both white line and black line effects could be achieved and repeat patterns could be made into borders and cartouches.  The differences in the color of the lines further frustrated would-be counterfeiters.   Perkins advances were important, and were effective for a long time.  Eventually two weaknesses became apparent which required rethinking.  The very uniformity that Perkins believed in made counterfeiting more difficult but when achieved made it harder to detect.  The other issue was Perkins process was too mechanical.  The artistry and personality of the engraver made each piece unique and extremely difficult to mimic.  By adding a second engraver to split the work of the front and back designs a counterfeiter would now have to try to copy the individual styles of two artists. [/FONT]  [FONT=&quot]Security printing is different than any other type of printing because of what the end product represents.  Poor production techniques used to protect the end product from easy reproduction undermines the stability and confidence of a state or institution.  Hand engraving using printing dies that could be reproduced from an original die has been a principal means to deter counterfeiting. One example of the differences is that other industries strive to remove the individual characteristics of the each craftsman or engraver.  Bank note engraving stresses and encourages them.  The personnel characteristics make it more difficult to exactly reproduce a piece of work.  Photographic processes for pictorial reproduction lack the conformity and unique characteristics of the fine lines inherent in steel engraving. Other methods do not possess the 3rd dimension effect of ink deposited on paper.  The exactness of the lines that must be plate printed engraved on the steel die.  Employing these processes makes a good counterfeit rare and a perfect one virtually impossible.  The advances in engraving and printing made in the first 50 years of the United States helped to stabilize a young government and make paper money a secure form of payment.  The process has come a long way since then but the basis were formed in these early days and are still an important part of the security measures used today.  I haven’t had the pleasure to touch one of the new hundreds issued by the US Government last week.  I look forward to checking out the raised features on Franklins shoulder using an enhanced intaglio method as well as the other new security features. [/FONT] References:  [FONT=&quot]The Story of the American Bank Note Company by William H. GriffithsBureau of Engraving and Printing 100 Years by The Treasury Department<a href="http://www.wilsonmuseum.org/bulletins/summer2006.html" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.wilsonmuseum.org/bulletins/summer2006.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.wilsonmuseum.org/bulletins/summer2006.html</a>[/FONT]  [FONT=&quot]Giulia Bartrum, "Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy", British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN 0714126330<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki" rel="nofollow">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki</a>[/FONT][/QUOTE]

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