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Message:: [QUOTE="randygeki, post: 491968, member: 13719"]Exhibit: Gallienus Antoninianus - 253-268- Photographed Oct 2008- by Me I had gotten a cheap little baggy of cleaned Roman coins, and one of them was of Gallienus, with and X through his head. The card that came with the coins said it was defaced in antiquity probably as a sign of disaprovel.   "ObverseRadiate crowned head of Gallienus facing right.GALLIENUS AUG. ReverseA woman, the personification of Pax, standing left, holding in her right hand an olive branch, in her left a cornucopiae, and under her left arm, a sceptre.PAX AUG"   "Pax - Peace<img src="http://24carat.co.uk/images/paxrevgallienusant.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />Pax or Peace was a very common Roman coin type, especially in time of war, and when the Empire was in decline. The sceptical would suppose that the word PAX and the goddess Pax were employed on coins as propaganda rather than to commemorate any particular peace.Gallienus spent most of his reign occupied in frontier battles and internal struggles. Peace was therefore a particularly inappropriate theme to adorn his coins, unless it was for propaganda purposes, in which case it was particularly apt.The construction of a magnificent temple in Rome was begun by Claudius to the honour of Pax. She is shown on the coins of Gallienus holding an olive branch, a cornucopiae, and a sceptre. Her other attributes include the "hasta pura" - a spear without the business end, a cornucopiae, and occasionally a caduceus.Pax was known to the Greeks as Eirene." <a href="http://24carat.co.uk/gallienuspaxframe.html" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://24carat.co.uk/gallienuspaxframe.html" rel="nofollow">http://24carat.co.uk/gallienuspaxframe.html</a> -----Antoninianus debased "Nero had first debased the Roman coinage, and mild inflation and debasement had continued gradually. During the reign of Gallienus, from about AD 260, the silver coinage was completely debased, and hyper-inflation occurred. Prices had risen by a factor of about 3 from the first to the third centuries. During the second half of Gallenius' reign, prices rose by a factor of about 20. Bankers refused to accept the vast quantities of low quality coins which were minted. Low quality referring mainly to their lack of precious metal content, but later by their reduced size, and irregular shape. Very few gold and true silver coins were issued, and these are quite rare. The antoninianus, which had started as a silver coin, had its silver content reduced to that of a thin silver coating, and eventually even this pretence stopped, later coins being completely base metal." <a href="http://24carat.co.uk/romanantoninianusgallienusframe.html" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://24carat.co.uk/romanantoninianusgallienusframe.html" rel="nofollow">http://24carat.co.uk/romanantoninianusgallienusframe.html</a> ------- "Gallienus's chief method of reinforcing his position is seen in the <a href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Coin.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Coin.htm" rel="nofollow">coinage</a> produced during his reign (see <a href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Roman:currency.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Roman:currency.htm" rel="nofollow">Roman currency</a>). The coinage provides clear evidence of a successful propaganda campaign. Gallienus took pains to make sure that he was regularly represented as victorius" <a href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Gallienus.html" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Gallienus.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Gallienus.html</a> ------ Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus “Roman emperor; b. about 218; d. at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" rel="nofollow">Milan</a>, 4 March, 268; appointed regent by his <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" rel="nofollow">father</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15256b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15256b.htm" rel="nofollow">Valerian</a> when the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06484b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06484b.htm" rel="nofollow">Germans</a> threatened the boundaries of the empire on the Rhine and the Danube. Gallienus took the western half of the empire and his <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" rel="nofollow">father</a> the eastern portion, in 255. Gallienus was by nature indolent and fond of pleasure. He was cruel to the vanquished, and was unable to repel the attacks of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06238a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06238a.htm" rel="nofollow">Frankish</a> invaders of Gaul, but bribed their chieftains to undertake the wardenship of the Rhenish borderline. When the Alemanni burst through the limes Rhaticus, or Rhætian barrier, and invaded Upper <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" rel="nofollow">Italy</a>, the senate armed the Roman burgesses for the first time in thirty years and raised a force of troops on its own responsibility. Gallienus defeated the enemy at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" rel="nofollow">Milan</a>, but made an alliance with one of the chiefs of the Marcomanni, and gave him Upper Pannonia. He forbade the senators to enter the military service, to have anything to do with the army, and excluded them from the administration of the provinces. In consequence of this <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04670a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04670a.htm" rel="nofollow">decree</a>, the former distinction between imperial and senatorial provinces disappeared. During the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15546c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15546c.htm" rel="nofollow">wars</a> against the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06484b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06484b.htm" rel="nofollow">Germans</a> many distinguished Roman officers were proclaimed emperors in the various provinces. The most successful of these was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02108b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02108b.htm" rel="nofollow">Aurelian</a>, who later became sole emperor. In consequence of the withdrawal of the troops from the eastern boundaries, the countries near the Bosphorus and the Black Sea were laid open to pillage at the hands of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11347d.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11347d.htm" rel="nofollow">Goths</a>. Simultaneously the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11712a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11712a.htm" rel="nofollow">Persians</a> under Sapor I swooped down on <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01782a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01782a.htm" rel="nofollow">Asia Minor</a>. <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15256b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15256b.htm" rel="nofollow">Valerian</a> led an army against them, but was betrayed and captured. His servitude lasted until his death in 260. Gallienus thereupon became sole ruler. A bloody <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11703a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11703a.htm" rel="nofollow">persecution</a> of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm" rel="nofollow">Christians</a> broke out in 257- 258, instigated by imperial edicts; they were accused of failure to take up arms in defence of the empire from its invaders. Whoever refused to take part in the Roman <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11388a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11388a.htm" rel="nofollow">pagan</a> rites was first exiled, then slain. One of the first victims was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04583b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04583b.htm" rel="nofollow">St. Cyprian</a>, <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02581b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02581b.htm" rel="nofollow">Bishop</a> of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03385a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03385a.htm" rel="nofollow">Carthage</a>, who was executed 14 September, 258; at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm" rel="nofollow">Rome</a><a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14031c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14031c.htm" rel="nofollow">Sixtus II</a> and his <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04647c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04647c.htm" rel="nofollow">deacon</a><a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09090a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09090a.htm" rel="nofollow">St. Lawrence</a> suffered <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09736b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09736b.htm" rel="nofollow">martyrdom</a>. After the death of his <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11478c.htm" rel="nofollow">father</a>, Gallienus granted liberty of worship to the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm" rel="nofollow">Christians</a>. He recognized as his deputy in the East Odenanthus, ruler of the commercial city of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11433a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11433a.htm" rel="nofollow">Palmyra</a> and energetic conqueror of Sapor I, King of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11712a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11712a.htm" rel="nofollow">Persia</a>. Afterwards he made him emperor. In the course of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15546c.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15546c.htm" rel="nofollow">wars</a> against the enemies of the empire, the soldiers at various times proclaimed eighteen of their generals provincial emperors. These men were also called "The Thirty Tyrants". Among them were Postumus in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06395b.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06395b.htm" rel="nofollow">Gaul</a>, and Ingenuus in Pannonia, over whom Gallienus won a partial victory, with the help of Aureolus, the commander-in-chief of the imperial armies. When the troops in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" rel="nofollow">Italy</a> acclaimed Aureolus "imperator", he tried to make himself master of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08208a.htm" rel="nofollow">Italy</a> and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm" rel="nofollow">Rome</a>, but was defeated by Gallienus on the Adda and shut up in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10298a.htm" rel="nofollow">Milan</a>. Gallienus was assassinated by his officers while this siege was going on. “ From: <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06366a.htm" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06366a.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06366a.htm</a>other articles on Gallienus:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienus" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienus" rel="nofollow">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienus</a><a href="http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/gallienus.html" target="_blank" class="externalLink ProxyLink" data-proxy-href="http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/gallienus.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/gallienus.html</a>  (since this isnt really complete, and the photo is terrible I'm not going to enter it into the competion, but I wanted to share some of what I learned, tryen to get it ready, with all of you)[/QUOTE]

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