Crisis Coinage and the Many Faces of Probus

Throughout the Crisis of the Third Century, the Roman Empire faced many problems that very nearly caused its collapse. Civil wars, foreign invasions, economic collapse, and decline of the imperial authority saw dozens of generals seize the throne, but these “soldier emperors” mostly had short and unstable reigns. Probus (276-282) was yet another soldier who rose to power during the Crisis, but unlike many of his peers, he distinguished himself via his military success and effective civil administration. As one of the notable Illyriciani (the Roman Emperors hailing from the region of Illyria) Probus first gained distinction serving under a fellow Illyricianus, the great emperor Aurelian. Aurelian managed to restore the empire from the brink of collapse, and Probus was one of the many officers behind this effort. He specifically retook the vital province of Egypt and its grain supply during Aurelian's reconquest of the breakaway provinces that formed the Palmyrene Empire.

Emperor Tacitus succeeded Aurelian, but he left no heir after his short reign and death. In a fashion typical of the Crisis, the eastern legions hailed Probus as their emperor in opposition to the other candidate for the throne: Florian. Probus quickly defeated Florian at the Cilician Gates with his superior generalship and became the undisputed Roman emperor.

While Aurelian had resolved many of the empire’s troubles, Probus’ reign was still marked by constant foreign invasion. Time and again, he crushed these invasions, defending Rome from the barbarian tribes. Probus would also campaign successfully in German lands, winning victories there as well. A few usurpers rose up against the emperor, but they were dealt with swiftly. Despite having the background of a soldier, Probus also proved to be a kind and effective statesman. He worked towards rebuilding much of the empire’s ruined economy throughout his reign via public building projects and agriculture. Probus was assassinated in a conspiracy of disgruntled Praetorian guardsmen who he had ordered to complete civic work such as building roads and draining swamps.

Bust of Probus (Capitoline Museum)

THE COINAGE​

Probus leaves a numismatic legacy that is perhaps even more impressive than his historical one. He largely continues the trend of Aurelian’s post reform coinage in terms of silver purity, flan size, and quality control. Probus’ coinage is most notable for the vast number of bust types that he employed to display his public image. He may not have technically been the first to use these new busts, but, in contrast to his predecessors, he was the first to mint them in large numbers.

The common bust types of the Third Century are usually either cuirassed or cuirassed and draped busts, but Probus brought two new types into common circulation: consular and military busts. The use of hands, new clothing, and various accessories and weapons is a stark departure from traditional Roman portraiture, even after Roman art had evolved throughout the Crisis. At a brief glance, Probus’ coinage is striking in its innovation and diversity concerning how it portrayed the emperor, especially relative to his predecessors.

Of course like any emperor, Probus has rare bust types. These usually include the emperor holding various regalia and items, ranging anywhere from orbs symbolizing his dominion over the world, to war darts that nod to the changing Roman army. His introduction of both the consular and military busts, in a way, summarize his reign as a whole: Probus was not just a soldier with no tact for politics, or a statesman who couldn’t lead an army, rather he excelled in both civil and martial fields.

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Radiate and cuirassed bust left, wearing aegis, holding globe surmounted by victory in right hand, baton in left (Triton IX, Lot 1583). Extremely rare and unusual bust type. Image courtesy of Classical Numismatics Group

THE BUST TYPES​

1). Cuirassed Busts: While three out of four of Probus’ major bust types include a cuirass, this is the simplest of the four. As the emperors increasingly hailed from the army, they started to depict themselves as soldiers on their coinage during the Crisis. This bust is the most common of Probus’ coins from the western mints of the empire.

Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. First Officina of Rome, Sixth Emission (281 AD). RIC V Probus 220 ​

Obverse: IMP PROBVS PF AVG. Radiate, cuirassed bust right.

Reverse: VICTORIA GERM. Two captives seated at the foot of a trophy. R (thunderbolt) A in exergue.

Comments: Silvered. This reverse acclaims Probus’ military success, specifically his success against the German tribes. After gaining power, Probus would crush the Goths along the Danube river and expel them from the empire’s borders. He would also defeat the Alamanni and Longiones that had crossed into Gaul. After pushing these tribes out of the empire, he would campaign against the Germans in their own lands, winning victories there as well. The emperor later campaigned against and defeated the Vandals in Illyria. Probus reportedly killed 400,000 barbarian invaders.


2). Draped and Cuirassed Busts: The draped and cuirassed bust is the single most common bust type amongst emperors of the Crisis. The cuirass under the emperor’s cloak can sometimes be hard to spot, but the military connection is still clear. While these busts can be found at any mint for Probus, they are most commonly found in the eastern mints of the empire.

Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. Second Officina of Tripolis, First Emission (276 AD). RIC V Probus 927​

Obverse: IMP C M AVR PROBVS PF AVG. Radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right.

Reverse: CLEMENTIA TEMP. Probus standing right, holding sceptre and receiving globe surmounted by victory from Jupiter standing left, holding sceptre. Crescent in bottom field, KA in exergue.

Comments: Most silvering remaining. The reverse message “Clemency of the Times” didn’t bear any particular resemblance to the empire’s situation during the Crisis, but it instead represented the hopes of a possible future for Rome. In this reverse, Jupiter offers Probus a globe surmounted by Victory, a symbol of dominion and conquest. Jupiter essentially entrusts to Probus the protection of the empire against its enemies, thereby providing a sign to the people that they could have faith in the emperor to protect them as well.

3). Consular Busts: During Rome’s Republican period, the Roman consuls were the highest elected magistrates of the Roman state. With the dawn of the Empire, the princeps now had supreme authority, and while the consulship still held some power, it wasn’t nearly the same. Despite the increasingly autocratic tendencies of emperors during the Third Century, it was actually during this time that the consular bust, which represented not military, but civic duty, was first introduced. Perhaps emperors started to use the consular bust as a nod to the senate, which had lost even more power in the Third Century. Though Gallienus may have been the first emperor to use this bust, Probus is certainly the first to mint these coins regularly. Out of all the soldier emperors, Probus may be the most fitting to utilize the consular robes and regalia on his coinage. Rome’s republican days were obviously long gone, but the earlier emperors had still put on a facade of senatorial control. As the emperors of the Third Century increasingly disregarded this practice, Probus stands out for his Augustan stance towards the senate in which he at least pretended to give them power as the earlier emperors did.

Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. First Officina of Siscia, Fifth Emission (278 AD). RIC V Probus 670
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Obverse: IMP C M AVR PROBVS PF AVG. Radiate bust left, wearing the consular robes and holding an eagle tipped sceptre.

Reverse: CONSERVAT AVG. Sol standing, facing left, right hand raised, left hand holding globe.

Comments: Dark brown/green patina. Some toned silvering on reverse. Probus Coins (Online) 3915 (This coin cited). Emperor Aurelian reformed the Roman religion to assert Sol Invictus as the supreme deity over the Romans. Sol was an especially popular patron amongst the soldiers, and here Probus calls upon him as the protector of the emperor, who of course himself was a soldier.


4). Military Busts: As nearly all the emperors of the Third Century hailed from the army, the portraiture on the coinage also became increasingly militaristic. The standard depiction of the emperor in the earlier empire was usually just his head with the appropriate headwear (i.e. a portrait showing the emperor's head and neck along with a laurel wreath), but during the Third Century, nearly all of the busts included at least a soldier’s cuirass. The military bust brings the martial progression of the emperor's depiction to its ultimate culmination, as it now showed the emperor entirely as a soldier with full armor, a helmet, and weapons. Earlier emperors of the crisis struck rare militaristic busts with slight variations, but Probus was the first to mint these portraits in regular numbers.

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Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. Sixth Officina of Rome, Second Emission (277 AD). RIC V Probus 194.​

Obverse: IMP C PROBVS AVG. Cuirassed, radiate, and helmeted bust left, holding shield and spear over shoulder.

Reverse: ROMAE AETERNAE. Hexastyle temple. Roma seated in center, holding victory in right hand and a sceptre in left hand. R ς in exergue.

Comments: Dark brown/green patina. Struck on a broad flan. Scarce for this officina. The reverse iconography of this coin is specifically based on the temple dedicated to Roma Aeterna which once stood on a path exiting the Colosseum. The temple burnt down in 283 and was rebuilt in 309, but it no longer exists today. The Romans solemnly vowed that their city would last until the end of the age, but during the Crisis of the Third Century, this idea must have certainly been challenged. To the citizens of the empire, the idea that there could be an “Eternal Rome” might have seemed true under the protection of such an active and great general like Probus.



Many other emperors of the Crisis have rare or unique bust types, but Probus takes many of these types and strikes them in large enough numbers that both in his and our day, they are common. When practically every emperor in the Third Century utilized the same bust types with the same soldier’s haircut, the distinction between different emperors’ portraits can start to blur a bit. Probus for the first time breaks the mold in a large fashion through all the various ways he presented himself on his coinage, and that is just considering all of his common bust types. When looking at Probus’ rare types, it is not hard to imagine that he somehow was personally involved in the artistry on his coins, as there are just so many incredible types and designs. The reign of Probus leaves us with a wonderful series of diverse, attractive, and affordable coinage.

References:
Le Règne de l’Empereur Probus

Roman Imperial Coinage

The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins

A Dictionary of Roman Coins

probuscoins.fr

 

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For all you Probus Posters, here's a bonus coin:

Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. Third Officina of Rome, Third Emission (278 AD). RIC V Probus 157​

Obverse: IMP PROBVS AVG. Cuirassed, radiate, and helmeted bust left, holding shield and spear over shoulder.

Reverse: ADVENTVS AVG. Probus, riding left, arm raised in salute and holding sceptre in left arm; captive at feet. R * Γ in exergue.

Comments: Silvering in places. This reverse type is shared across the coinage of many Roman emperors, and it allows us to track their movements. The adventus itself was a ceremony held whenever an emperor arrived in a city. A greeting party would meet the emperor and his entourage outside the city before escorting them inside the walls. Games and celebrations were held, and it is likely that coins of this type were given to the citizens as a donative. With the 278 date, this coin may have been struck in honor of Probus’ return to the city of Rome after his successful campaign in Gaul against the Alemanni and Longiones.

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Excellent first post and wonderful Probus coins. Welcome to CoinTalk!

My favorite Probus is from the same mint and officina as yours. Ex Doug Smith

Roman Empire
Probus, BI Antoninianus, Tripolis mint, second officina, struck ca. AD 276-282
Dia.: 22 mm
Wt.: 3.82 g
Obv: IMP C M AVR PROBVS P F AVG, radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right
Rev: CLEMENTIA TEMP•, emperor standing right, holding eagle-tipped sceptre, receiving globe from Jupiter, holding sceptre, crescent in lower centre, KA in ex.
Ref.: RIC V(b) 927.
Ex Doug Smith Collection (illustrated on his webpage for Probus), acquired in 1997 from Kreuzer

 

Welcome to the Ancients Forum @Ronalovich and a great first post.

 

Great first post, welcome! Great coins. That CNG coin is fantastic. I wish those were common enough for us all to afford! Here's are a couple of my many favorite Probus coins:

Rome RIC V-2 58

Ticinum RIC V-2 480

 

Great write up! That CNG coin is superb. It's a bit (a lot) too expensive for me, so I'll have to make do with the eagle on sceptre type for now! Here are a few of mine

 

Wellcome Ron,

These 2 did go around , I love 'm.

 

Very nice - thanks for posting.

 

Great writeup and great coins!! Thank you!

A first issue from Rome, with draped and cuirassed bust:


Consular bust from Ticinum (also part of the EQUITI series)


Cuirassed bust from Siscia, with INV titulature:


Uncertain Asian mint, allegedly issued to fund the suppression of Saturninus's revolt:


A military bust hasn't been high on my want list, but your post makes me think I need one!

 

Here's my most unusual bust:

Preservation is awful, but I don't think its a super rare one.

 

Welcome to CT, @Ronalovich! Educational first post!

One of my favorite Probus coins is this consular bust type with Sol in a quadriga:


Probus, AD 276-282.
Roman billon antoninianus, 4.15 g, 22.05 mm, 6 h.
Serdica, 4th officina, 4th emission, AD 277.
Obv: IMP C M AVR PROBVS P F AVG, radiate bust, left, in imperial mantle, holding eagle-tipped scepter.
Rev: SOLI INVICTO, Sol, in spread quadriga, raising right hand and holding whip in left hand; -/-//KAΔ.
Refs: RIC 861 H; RCV 12040 var. (bust).

 

I believe the id for this coin would be RIC V Probus 499.

Roman Empire, Probus AE Antoninianus. Third Officina of Ticinum, Ninth Emission (281 AD).

The V in the left field of the reverse would make this a part of the coded EQVITI series, so despite the damage, an interesting coin nonetheless!

 

I can not recall why I put that one out. Perhaps just one dot after TEMP did not make it better than this one? Of the three, mine has the least silver and cost half in 2011 of what I paid in 1997 for the other one. Did I make a mistake?



Very few of the coins illustrated on my website have left me and my records show I lost money on it unless you say I rented it for a bit over a dollar a year. Do we get value out of coins that make it easier when they sell low? I have enjoyed my time in the hobby. It is hard to put a dollar value on that experience.

 

Great write up indeed! I couldn't agree more with everything you wrote about Probus and his coinage except for the description of the rare Probus bust with victoriola and pugio/parazonium. I know that you were only citing CNG's catalogue description of said coin but nevertheless Probus is not waering aegis on that coin. By the way is it your coin?

Anyway, it's always very nice to meet another Probus enthusiast like myself. I actually recently started a thread about Probus coins here, where I posted some of my favorite Probus coins. You may want to have a look:

https://www.cointalk.com/threads/why-do-we-collect-probus-coins.388590/

 

Great coins and write-up!

You mentioned that Probus proved to be a kind and effective statesman. I'm curious if there's any signs of this kindness (cf. clemency) in his dealings with enemies?

It's interesting to at least see this claim of clemency, whether actual or aspirational!

In contrast Constantine I had taken more of a "shock and awe" strategy towards enemies, and is explicitly praised in a Panegyric for his lack of clemency when he condemned so many enemy captives to death by beasts in the arena, that the beasts grew weary of the slaughter! (of course in reality the beasts weren't really up for it in the first place, and had to be goaded into action with fire brands etc).

 

Sadly it is not my coin! I added the citation, but perhaps I could have been clearer that it was not my coin; I used it to illustrate a rare and unusual bust type.

What an absolutely incredible collection of Probi you have! I'd hope my collection to be a fraction that good one day.

 

Here is an example of a coin on which Probus is wearing an aegis:



I think Probus is a godsend for coin collectors: so many different bust styles, well made coins and often available in large numbers at reasonable prices. My latest two, which I bought yesterday at a surprisingly low price:

 

Indeed Dirk, that's a beautiful example of an aegis bust of Probus. I know your coin well as it comes from the collection of my numismatic friend and master the late Philippe Gysen who was a true specialist of the coinage of Probus.

As you no doubt know very well helmeted bust with aegis is much, much rarer than bust with aegis but no helmet (which already in itself ir pretty scarce and desirable).

aegis = (Greek: αιγίς aigís 'goatskin', Latin: aegis) - in Greek mythology, the shield of the god Zeus and goddess Athena made from the skin of the goat Amalthea). RIC V.2 misinterprets aegis for "square shield".

 

Do you know if there was any systematic reason for the issuance of different bust styles? Do they commemorate special events or are they just the artistic self-expression of the die-cutters?

Maybe there was a number of basic styles: normal bust, consular bust, military bust, heroic bust, which were to be issued in certain numbers and the die cutters were free to experiment around that that.

 

All we can do today is speculate. There are no ancient written sources which could directly answer your questions.

I am sure Probus had some direct, personal influence over the choice of certain bust / reverse types / titulatures. Simply because his coinage differs so much from the coinage of his predecessors (is so much more abundant and diverse as regards bust/reverse types). It seems unreasonable to assume that mint officials would on their own initiative, without any consultations with the emperor, suddenly start striking so many different busts and reverses.

However mint officials definitely had some autonomy and not every decision / design was consulted with the emperor (that would simply be impossible).

The selection of particular reverses / busts etc. had specific propaganda purposes, no doubt. However it is very difficult to determine today whether particular busts or reverses were supposed to commemorate special, specific events. Such link is easier with regard to donativa coins (aurei, small module or large-module medallions, erroneously described sometimes as "denarii" or "dupondii" etc.). This link is usually harder to determine with regard to regular coins (regular antoninianii).