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Message:: [QUOTE="Napata, post: 2323065, member: 76197"]Tissaphernes - Bronze Coinage Issues Tissaphernes - whose original non-Greek name was reconstructed and meant "with shining/bright splendor/fortune" - is a prominent figure in Achaemenid history for being a member of leading nobility line.Over his career, he served two Achaemenid kings - Darius II and Artaxerxes II - until his political involvements led to his demise. Indeed, the narratives about him aren't free from bias as most comes from Greek sources and this grandee had many confrontations with them. From Persian perspective, we have nothing as Persians have few interconnected narratives about internal events. No surprises Roman and Greek cultures are prominent compared to other ancient cultures. Now, we introduce three bronze coin issues whose attribution to Tissaphernes is seen as fairly certain (compared to other coins considered minted in his name). There are three types/issues. Type I - 'Athena in Attic Helmet/Zeus (or Dionysos)'<img src="http://www.coinarchives.com/e0fdfe692a84aa22cb0bcb873fcde812/img/pecunem/040/image00342.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Type II - 'Head of Tissaphernes/Artemis of Astyra'<img src="http://www.coinarchives.com/f04c42dfb6807de21ad159d96c504dfe/img/pecunem/038/image00348.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" />Type III - 'Athena in Attic Helmet/Rider (Tissaphernes?) in Persian attire'<img src="http://i.imgur.com/tiPU6FM.png" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Main reason the attribution is fairly certain is that his name is onto the flan of the coin - either the acronym 'Tissa' (ΤΙΣΣΑ) for smaller denominations or 'Tissaphernes' (ΤΙΣΣΑΦΕΡΝΟΥ) for larger ones. The second type has the additional legend that indicates the minting location: Astyra (AΣTYPH). A small village with a mint near Adramytteion.<img src="http://i.imgur.com/Fg3t0HS.png" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Regarding Type II and III, the first is clearly minted at Astyra while the second coin is supposed either in Astyra or Adramytteion. Due to the lack of legend other than the coin attribution, scholars have various minting places in mind, but the two suggestions are the most likely. To get back to Tissaphernes, his political career started in 413 BC where he became satrap of Lydia and karanos (title loosely translated as 'general'). He became the supreme Achaemenid official in Asia Minor and served Darius II (Nothos) at the time. What promoted him to this position was the defeat of the former Lydian satrap, Pissuthnes, who rose against his king. Darius II apparently demoted Tissaphernes in 407 BC to the minor satrapy of Caria (see map) and his former titularies were given to Cyrus the Younger (second son to the eldest). During the Peloponnesian War (427-404 BC), Tissaphernes made manipulative negotiations with the city-state of Sparta where he requested them to no longer protect cities in Asia Minor. He did the same process with the Athenians who refused to get involved with the Persian grandee. When the negotiations were concluded, Tissaphernes never gave the promised navy to the Spartans in a play of realpolitik. This displeased both king Darius II and his queen Parysatis and it may the reason for Tissaphernes' demotion. In 404 BC, Darius II was not found among the livings. Cyrus the Younger along with Tissaphernes were hastily going to Babylon to Darius' deathbed. However, during the traveling period, his older brother (the eldest), Artaxerxes II (formerly Arsicas) was enthroned in Parsagadae. Cyrus the Younger was furious. He subsequently conspired to murder his older brother to get the throne of Persia. Tissapernes reported Cyrus the Younger to Artaxerxes II about his murderous intents. Then, Cyrus the Younger was arrested, but pardoned thanks to his mother's pleas, Parysatis. He was then sent back to the satrapy of Lydia. However, another Persian grandee and military officer, Orontes, held the city of Sardis from Cyrus the Younger. Perhaps, Artaxerxes II conspired this to prevent his younger brother to restore his former position. Still, Cyrus the Younger submitted Orontes and recovered Sardis. Artaxerxes gave up in meddling with his brother as he had more crucial matters: Egypt revolted few time after his taking of the Persian throne (typical event from subjugated kingdoms during successions). The Persian king built up his army for a march to Egypt. He had no other choice than acknowledging his younger brother to the Lydian satrapy. Cyrus the Younger was no longer holding a huge satrapy and nor still held his title of karanos. This disgrace was unbearable for him. He lost the Ionian cities for instance. His resources were limited to Lydia and even complained he barely had resources to sustain his own court at Sardis. Perhaps, he knew his brother would degrade him further after his Egyptian campaign. Tissaphernes was holding the Satrapy of Caria and the Ionian cities. Since he was now the enemy of Cyrus the Younger, he felt justified to take back what belongs to him. In 401 BC, Tissaphernes suspected big to happen soon. Cyrus the Younger mustered mercenaries in Ionian cities and troops levied elsewhere. Tissaphernes knew the goal of taming the Pisidians was a fluke reason. The army was too big. Hastily, he warned Artaxerxes II to diminish the magnitude of the army sent to Egypt otherwise the center of the empire would be left vulnerable. This last-minute warning allowed the Persian king to defeat this attempt of subversion. Cyrus the Younger was slain and the remaining mercenaries negotiated the truce. Then, they returned to the West with difficulty as they were harassed by Tissaphernes' troops. Then, in 400 BC, Tissaphernes was re-appointed as satrap of Lydia and got back his karanos title as Artaxerxes was satisfied by his loyalty. Tissaphernes' downfall abruptly occurred in 395 BC when a courtier asked the Persian grandee to come to Colossae. There, Tissaphernes was murdered and scholars suspect Cyrus the Younger's mother, Parysatis, is behind this planning in revenge for his slain son. To get to the subject of his bronze coin issues, Tissaphernes is seen as a forerunner in bronze coinage in Asia Minor. For a while, the earliest dated bronze coins were those in his name. As one of the pioneers in bronze coinage, this was a drastic change of paradigm from the traditional metals such as electrum, silver or gold. Some hypothetize he was a shrewd satrap that minted these base coins to minimize cost when hiring his mercenaries in Asia Minor, the cradle of bronze coinage where this coinage was acknowledged. Either Tissaphernes learnt from the local dynasts or he really was the pioneer. However, to mint coins in his name, this requires a strong authority and access to mints. Only during the periods when he was the satrap of Lydia and karanos that he had such ability. This means the period 413-407 BC or 400-395 BC. When he was demoted to the minor satrapy of Caria, he had no such power to mint coins nor access to mints. The three bronze coin types above are traditionally dated 400-395 BC mainly to a scholar who thinks the Persian bust representing Tissaphernes is one of a man past his prime time. Thus, they must be minted in the latest period. Plus, at the time, bronze coinage were not in big amount to derive conclusions compared to today. The earliest bronze coins at that time where from a Lycian dynast and were dated later than Tissaphernes' second office as Lydian satrap and karanos (400-395 BC). Now, there is a big possibility to be dated either 413-407 BC or 400-395 BC and this is why such coins are often characterized by two possible range of dates. At last, I present a Tissaphernes Type III bronze coin. On the obverse, Athena is wearing the Attic helmet and, on the reverse, we see a horseback rider in Persian attire holding a spear. It is supposed to represent Tissaphernes as his name is put as legend above the rider. <img src="http://i.imgur.com/fZJqjaY.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /><img src="http://i.imgur.com/tDy5l3w.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /><img src="http://i.imgur.com/Ts4Yrj2.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /><img src="http://i.imgur.com/VDBpLmq.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /><img src="http://i.imgur.com/VqLye0D.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Here are examples of the same type gathered from various sources. <img src="http://i.imgur.com/0WBQTwZ.jpg" class="bbCodeImage wysiwygImage" alt="" unselectable="on" /> Collecting coins is one thing, but the historical meaning behind them is the most fascinating part. I have attached a paper below for those who might be interested to know more about Tissaphernes' bronze coin issues. Napata[/QUOTE]

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